There is a natural assumption of truth, or a truth bias when humans communicate with one another. In other words, when we're listening to others or reading their words, our automatic assumption is that the other person is telling the truth. This usually works out fine. If you ask someone where the restroom is located or if it's raining outside, you can safely assume that most people will not lie in their responses. Imagine how difficult it would be to converse with someone if you assumed that everything they were telling you was false! Indeed, questioning the truth of a statement and then choosing not to believe it requires additional mental steps. For the most part, humans are "cognitive misers," which means we typically don't expend more mental effort than seems necessary in a given situation. It makes sense then, that when we see something online, even if it is fake, our default is to believe it, at least at first.

In the course of trying to solve a problem with an invention, you may encounter a brick wall of resistance when you try to think your way logically through the problem. Such logical thinking is a linear type of process, which uses our reasoning skills. This works fine when we're operating in the area of what we know or have experienced. However, when we need to deal with new information, ideas, and viewpoints, linear thinking will often come up short. On the other hand, creativity by definition involves the application of new information to old problems and the conception of new viewpoints and ideas. For this you will be most effective if you learn to operate in a nonlinear manner; that is, use your creative brain. Stated differently, if you think in a linear manner, you'll tend to be conservative and keep coming up with techniques which are already known. This, of course, is just what you don't want.

Punishing a child may not be effective due to what Alvaro Bilbao, a neuropsychologist, calls 'trick-punishments.' A trick-punishment is a scolding, a moment of anger or a punishment in the most classic sense of the word. Instead of discouraging the child from doing something, it encourages them to do it. For example, Hugh learns that when he hits his little brother, his mother scolds him. For a child who feels lonely, being scolded is much better than feeling invisible, so he will continue to hit his brother. In this case, his mother would be better adopting a different strategy. For instance, she could congratulate Hugh when he has not hit his brother for a certain length of time. The mother clearly cannot allow the child to hit his little brother, but instead of constantly pointing out the negatives, she can choose to reward the positives. In this way, any parent can avoid trick-punishments.

Capuchins ― New World Monkeys that live in large social groups ― will, in captivity, trade with people all day long, especially if food is involved. I give you this rock and you give me a treat to eat. If you put two monkeys in cages next to each other, and offer them both slices of cucumber for the rocks they already have, they will happily eat the cucumbers. If, however, you give one monkey grapes instead ― grapes being universally preferred to cucumbers ― the monkey that is still receiving cucumbers will begin to throw them back at the experimenter. Even though she is still getting "paid" the same amount for her effort of sourcing rocks, and so her particular situation has not changed, the comparison to another makes the situation unfair. Furthermore, she is now willing to abandon all gains ― the cucumbers themselves ― to communicate her displeasure to the experimenter.

영어지문 (입력필수) 한글해석 (입력 필수 아님)AI 한글해석↵
Over the last several decades, scholars have developed standards for how best to create, organize, present, and preserve digital information for future generations. What has remained neglected for the most part, however, are the needs of people with disabilities. As a result, many of the otherwise most valuable digital resources are useless for people who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as for people who are blind, have low vision, or have difficulty distinguishing particular colors. While professionals working in educational technology and commercial web design have made significant progress in meeting the needs of such users, some scholars creating digital projects all too often fail to take these needs into account. This situation would be much improved if more projects embraced the idea that we should always keep the largest possible audience in mind as we make design decisions, ensuring that our final product serves the needs of those with disabilities as well as those without.